3B). There is also a direct link between ER stress and TNF-α. Silencing of ATF4 and CHOP prevented the upregulation of TNF-α in cells [7]. Similarly, the induction of TNF-α was observed in human bronchial epithelial cells after exposure to titanium dioxide nanoparticles [44]. ZnO-NPs induced the expression of TNF-α in human keratinocytes. The up-regulation of TNF-α was dependent on the activation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) of MAPK pathways

[24]. TNF-α belongs to the group of proinflammatory cytokines involved in the pathogenesis of several diseases including cancer [32], rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes and inflammatory bowel disease [45]. TNFα is known as an endogenous tumor promoter [19]. Therefore, chronic human selleck kinase inhibitor exposure to SiO2-NPs may ultimately result PFT�� order in adverse effects on human health. Our data further corroborate on previous results the induction of ER stress by SiO2-NPs [12]. We therefore hypothesise that ER stress and up-regulation of UPR may be considered as a more general effect induced by nanoparticles. Chronic and severe ER stress results in the activation of apoptotic pathways. Expression of CHOP, an important proapoptotic marker gene, is induced by ATF-4. CHOP itself induces the expression of the apoptotic genes BIM (member of the Bcl-2 family) and p53 upregulated modulator of apoptosis (PUMA). The IRE1 pathway may induce apoptosis by the

activation of the apoptosis signalling kinase 1 (ASK1) and through interaction with tumor necrosis factor-associated factor 2 (TRAF2). Therefore, Clomifene SiO2-NPs may show hepatotoxic activity through ER stress and induction of UPR. Another important gene transcript up-regulated in response to ER stress is Noxa [36], which induces apoptosis by the Usp9x-Mcl-1 pathway [47]. This could also contribute to the hepatotoxic action of SiO2-NPs. Constant ER stress contributes to the development of the metabolic syndrome, is linked with hepatic steatosis and ER stress also inhibits hepatic lipoprotein secretion [18], [27] and [34]. UPR activation including eIF2α phosphorylation and splicing of XBP-1 mRNA was detected during adipogenesis. [40]. Additionally, the UPR plays

also a role in cancer development. Activation of ATF-4 is critical for tumor cell proliferation and tumor growth [48]. The IRE1α-XBP-1 pathway is important for tumor cell survival and growth [5]. Therefore, it is conceivable that chronic exposure to SiO2-NPs may result in the induction of these alterations in the liver. P53 is important for apoptosis, genomic stability, DNA repair, inhibition of angiogenesis and inhibition of growth by stopping the cells cycle in the G1/S phase. In case of irreversible DNA damage, p53 leads to induction of apoptosis [2]. In more than 50% cancers the p53 protein is either absent or non-functional due to various other reasons [16]. We found a significant down-regulation of p53 in Huh7 cells after exposure to SiO2-NPs ( Fig. 4B).