, 2004). In Africa, temple art at Deir El Bahari in Egypt dating from around 1500 BC shows potted Boswellia sp. seedlings being loaded onto ships for transport from the Land of Punt (present day Somalia) to Egypt (see Harlan (1975) and references therein). Tectona grandis was introduced from Laos to the Vemurafenib price island of Java in Indonesia by Hindu travellers between the 14th and 16th centuries, if not earlier, and from North India to Africa

by the Germans at the end of the 19th century ( Verhaegen et al., 2010). In the 18th century, seeds of Pinus sylvestris, Picea abies, Larix decidua and Quercus spp. were widely traded across European countries ( Tulstrup, 1959). Exploration by Europeans in Australia and North America in the 19th century also resulted in international transfers of tree germplasm (i.e., seed, cuttings or other propagating parts of a tree) for forestry purposes, and such exchange continues to this day ( Griffin et al., 2011). In addition to being driven by the uses of various species, the transfer of tree germplasm has been influenced by the prevailing mind sets of different historical and political eras

(Carruthers et al., 2011). During the mid- to late-colonial period from the 19th century to the mid-20th century, tree germplasm was transferred to “improve” both the aesthetic value of landscapes and their economic productivity. The economic XAV-939 in vitro aspects were further emphasized during the period of post-colonial national development in many countries over much of the 20th century, during which time tree germplasm was transferred for establishing large-scale plantations to supply raw material for industrial modernization. Since the 1980s, tree germplasm has been increasingly transferred under the banner of

sustainable development to improve the livelihoods and environments of smallholders and local communities (Graudal and Lillesø, 2007). Before proceeding further, a note on terminology is necessary. The movements of trees and other plants were categorised by Kull and Rangan (2008) into three processes, namely transfer, diffusion and dispersal. The first two of these they classified as human-mediated, defining “transfer” as transoceanic or other large-scale movements of germplasm, while with “diffusion” they Methisazone referred to movements at national or local scales. With “dispersal”, Kull and Rangan (2008) referred to the movement of reproductive material by biotic and abiotic agents. We recognize the utility of this classification, but the border between “transfer” and “diffusion” is sometimes difficult to define. Therefore, in this paper we use the term “transfer” for all human-mediated movements of tree germplasm, regardless of geographical scale. The transfer of tree germplasm has shaped the management, ecology and genetic diversity of forests, both planted and natural, in many parts of the world.