albicans, such as adhesion to host surfaces, hyphal formation and secretion of proteinases [11]. In addition, C. albicans cells employ mechanisms that protect of the fungal cells from the host immune system, including an efficient oxidative stress response [12, 13]. When

immunocompetent individuals are infected by fungi, macrophages and neutrophils generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as superoxide radicals and hydrogen peroxide that damage cellular components of C. albicans, inclusive of proteins, lipids and DNA. The production of ROS is an important mechanism of host defense against fungal pathogens [13], damaging cells enough to cause cell death of phagocytosed fungal cells [12, 14]. Treatment of fungal infections, especially invasive ones, is considered difficult due to the limited availability of antifungal drugs and by the emergence of drug-resistant strains. The development of new antifungal agents and new therapeutic PKC inhibitor approaches for fungal infections are therefore urgently needed [4, 8, 15]. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an innovative PF-01367338 cost antimicrobial approach that combines a non-toxic dye or photosensitizer (PS) with harmless visible light of the correct wavelength. The activation of the PS by light results in the production of ROS, such as singlet oxygen and hydroxyl radicals, that are toxic to cells [6, 16]. PDT is a highly selective modality because the

PS uptake occurs mainly in hyperproliferative cells and cell

death is spatially limited to regions where light of the appropriate wavelength is applied. As microbial cells possess very fast growth rates, much like that of malignant cells, PDT has been widely used for microbial cell destruction [17]. Several in vitro studies have shown that PDT can be highly effective in the inactivation of C. albicans and other Candida species. Therefore, antifungal PDT is a subject of increasing interest especially against Candida strains resistant CYTH4 to conventional antifungal agents [16]. Galleria mellonella (the greater wax moth) has been successfully used to study pathogenesis and infection by different fungal species, such as Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Fusarium oxysporum, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus fumigatus[18]. Recently, our laboratory was the first to describe G. mellonella as an alternative invertebrate model host to study antimicrobial PDT alone or followed by conventional therapeutic antimicrobial treatments [19]. We demonstrated that after infection by Enterococcus faecium, the use of antimicrobial PDT prolonged larval survival. We have also found that aPDT followed by administration of a conventional antibiotic (vancomycin) was significantly effective in prolonging larval Lazertinib in vivo survival even when infected with a vancomycin-resistant E. faecium strain. In this study, we go on to report the use of the invertebrate model G.