9%. In this study, we have demonstrated that farrerol is active against both MSSA and MRSA with www.selleckchem.com/products/pf-06463922.html MICs ranging from 4 to 16 μg mL−1. Consequently, farrerol may be used as a lead compound for the design of more potent antibacterial agents to be used in combating drug-resistant S. aureus strains. Many toxin-encoding genes are coordinately regulated in response to a variety of global regulatory elements

such as the accessory gene regulator (agr) and the staphylococcal accessory regulator (sar) (Novick, 2003). Previous studies have indicated that the inhibitory effects of antibiotics on S. aureus exotoxin production were secondary to the inhibition of translation of one or more global regulatory mRNAs (Herbert et al., 2001; Kuroda et al., 2007). Therefore, it is reasonable to BMS-777607 nmr speculate that the farrerol-induced inhibition of global regulators

might lead to the decreased α-toxin production. Alpha-toxin is principally expressed during the postexponential growth phase, and is regulated by the agr locus (Recsei et al., 1986). Accordingly, we performed real-time RT-PCR to evaluate the influence of farrerol on the agr locus in S. aureus. Our data showed that farrerol significantly repressed the transcription of agrA in a dose-dependent fashion. However, the mechanism by which S. aureus controls virulence determinant gene expression is intricate and involves an interactive, hierarchical regulatory cascade involving the products of the agr and sar, as well as other components (Chan & Foster, 1998). Therefore, we presume that the reduction of α-toxin production observed in our study may be, in part, a consequence of farrerol-induced inhibition of the agr locus. The agr locus upregulates the expression of exotoxins genes while it downregulates the expression of surface-associated virulence factors. Therefore, in addition to α-toxin, the production of other exotoxins genes (e.g. enterotoxins and toxic shock syndrome toxin 1) Regorafenib mouse may also be inhibited by farrerol. Meanwhile, farrerol might increase the expression of surface-related virulence

factors (e.g. protein A). This study was supported by National Key Project of Scientific and Technical Supporting Programs funded by Ministry of Science and Technology of China (No. 2006BAD31B05). J.Q. and H.X. contributed equally to the work. Fig. S1. PFGE separation of restriction fragments of Staphylococcus aureus genome digested with SmaI. Please note: Wiley-Blackwell is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting materials supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing material) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article. “
“The frequent coisolation of bacteria with Phytophthora and Pythium species suggests possible interspecies communication.

We applied a suite of oligonucleotide probes to verify the compatibility of the different steps of our protocol with CARD-FISH and concomitantly to provide a first overview of the application of the method. At both sites, 83–90% of DAPI cells were EUB

positive. Of the DAPI cells associated with silver grains, 83–100% of them were also EUB positive. By contrast, the fraction of cells that hybridized with the control probe remained low (< 1% of DAPI cells). We determined that the relative contribution of the bacterial groups selleck chemicals llc to total 55Fe-incorporating cells was reflected in their respective contributions to abundance (Fig. 4). The percent DAPI cells with visible silver grains were overall low for both experiments, this pattern could therefore reflect the most active iron-incorporating cells. It was, however, interesting to note that the contributions of Gammaproteobacteria, SAR86 and Alteromonas to 55Fe uptake were higher than their respective contributions to abundance. Members of the Gammaproteobacteria are frequently reported to develop in incubation experiments due to their opportunistic lifestyle. Even though we did not observe any major changes in the relative abundance of the ABT-263 nmr bacterial groups over the 7 days of incubation time (Fig. S1), this group could have strategies to efficiently respond to the iron addition. Alternatively, it

is also possible that members of the Gammaproteobacteria have higher iron cell quota. Additional work should aim to address these issues further. Thus, despite the contrasting

environmental conditions at the two study sites, we observed a similar pattern in the response of the bacterial community to iron uptake. To the best of our knowledge, our study provides the first description of the bacterial community, on different phylogenetic levels, that contributes to iron uptake in different ocean regimes. Taken together, the method described here demonstrates that MICRO-CARD-FISH using the radiotracer 55Fe can be successfully applied to the study of marine bacterial groups involved in iron uptake. Our study highlights the potential of the method Loperamide in future studies. A promising application would be to investigate iron bound to various organic ligands, which could provide insights into the capability of heterotrophic bacteria to acquire iron from different sources. We thank Matthew Cottrell for invaluable advice in image analysis processing. We thank the constructive comments of two anonymous reviewers and the editor that helped improve a previous version of the manuscript. This work was funded by Agence Nationale de la Recherche (Project BACCIO, Biomolecular Approach of the Cycling of Carbon and Iron in the Ocean, ANR-08-BLAN-0 309). “
“An isolated Serratia marcescens strain exhibited growth-coupled perchlorate () reduction under anoxic conditions. Perchlorate was reduced completely with stoichiometric chloride buildup and equimolar acetate consumption.

We applied a suite of oligonucleotide probes to verify the compatibility of the different steps of our protocol with CARD-FISH and concomitantly to provide a first overview of the application of the method. At both sites, 83–90% of DAPI cells were EUB

positive. Of the DAPI cells associated with silver grains, 83–100% of them were also EUB positive. By contrast, the fraction of cells that hybridized with the control probe remained low (< 1% of DAPI cells). We determined that the relative contribution of the bacterial groups click here to total 55Fe-incorporating cells was reflected in their respective contributions to abundance (Fig. 4). The percent DAPI cells with visible silver grains were overall low for both experiments, this pattern could therefore reflect the most active iron-incorporating cells. It was, however, interesting to note that the contributions of Gammaproteobacteria, SAR86 and Alteromonas to 55Fe uptake were higher than their respective contributions to abundance. Members of the Gammaproteobacteria are frequently reported to develop in incubation experiments due to their opportunistic lifestyle. Even though we did not observe any major changes in the relative abundance of the selleck chemicals bacterial groups over the 7 days of incubation time (Fig. S1), this group could have strategies to efficiently respond to the iron addition. Alternatively, it

is also possible that members of the Gammaproteobacteria have higher iron cell quota. Additional work should aim to address these issues further. Thus, despite the contrasting

environmental conditions at the two study sites, we observed a similar pattern in the response of the bacterial community to iron uptake. To the best of our knowledge, our study provides the first description of the bacterial community, on different phylogenetic levels, that contributes to iron uptake in different ocean regimes. Taken together, the method described here demonstrates that MICRO-CARD-FISH using the radiotracer 55Fe can be successfully applied to the study of marine bacterial groups involved in iron uptake. Our study highlights the potential of the method Adenosine in future studies. A promising application would be to investigate iron bound to various organic ligands, which could provide insights into the capability of heterotrophic bacteria to acquire iron from different sources. We thank Matthew Cottrell for invaluable advice in image analysis processing. We thank the constructive comments of two anonymous reviewers and the editor that helped improve a previous version of the manuscript. This work was funded by Agence Nationale de la Recherche (Project BACCIO, Biomolecular Approach of the Cycling of Carbon and Iron in the Ocean, ANR-08-BLAN-0 309). “
“An isolated Serratia marcescens strain exhibited growth-coupled perchlorate () reduction under anoxic conditions. Perchlorate was reduced completely with stoichiometric chloride buildup and equimolar acetate consumption.

Hospital Infantil Universitario ‘Virgen del Rocío’: J. A. León Leal. Hospital Regional Universitario ‘Carlos Haya’: E. Nuñez Cuadrado. Hospital Universitario de Getafe: J. T. Ramos. Hospital Universitario ‘La Paz’: M. I. de José. We thank the study patients for their participation and the HIV BioBank (Spanish AIDS Research Network) and collaborating centres for the clinical samples provided. This work learn more was supported in part by grants from Red Temática de Investigación Cooperativa Sanitaria ISCIII (RED RIS RD06/0006/0035); Fundación para la Investigación y Prevención del SIDA en España (FIPSE 24632/07 and FIPSE 240800/09); Fondo de Investigación Sanitaria (INTRASALUD

2009; RD09/0076/00103); Fundación Caja Navarra; and the Pediatric European Network for Treatment of AIDS (PENTA). VB is supported by the Fondo de Investigación Sanitaria through the Sara Borrell programme (CD09/00433). CP is supported by The Spanish MICINN through the Juan de la Cierva programme

(JCI-2009-05650). Conflicts of interest: The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare. “
“The aim of the study was to describe growth and body composition changes in HIV-positive children after they had initiated or changed antiretroviral therapy (ART) and to correlate these with viral, immune and treatment parameters. Ninety-seven prepubertal HIV-positive children were observed over 48 weeks upon beginning or changing ART. Anthropometry and bioelectrical impedance analysis results were compared with results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999–2002 Selleck Depsipeptide (NHANES) to generate z-scores and with results for HIV-exposed, uninfected children from the Women and Infants Transmission Study (WITS). Multivariate analysis was used to evaluate associations between growth and body composition and disease parameters. All baseline lean and fat mass measures were below those of controls from NHANES. Weight, height and fat free mass (FFM) index (FFM/height2) z-scores increased over time (P=0.004, 0.037 and 0.027, respectively) and the waist:height ratio z-score decreased (P=0.045), but body mass index and per cent body fat z-scores did not change. Measures

did not increase more than in uninfected WITS controls. In multivariate analysis, baseline Adenosine height, mid-thigh circumference and FFM z-scores related to CD4 percentage (P=0.029, P=0.008 and 0.020, respectively) and change in FFM and FFM index z-scores to CD4 percentage increase (P=0.010 and 0.011, respectively). Compared with WITS controls, baseline differences in height and mid-thigh muscle circumference were also associated with CD4 percentage. Case–control differences in change in both subscapular skinfold (SSF) thickness and the SSF:triceps skinfold ratio were inversely associated with viral suppression. No measures related to ART class(es) at baseline or over time. In these HIV-positive children, beginning or changing ART was associated with improved growth and lean body mass (LBM), as indicated by FFM index.

We also found that the MS animals were more anxious in LEE011 purchase the light/dark exploration test. The results of this study indicate that ELS has a significant impact

on the structural and functional plasticity of the mPFC in adolescents. ELS-induced adaptive plasticity may underlie the pathomechanisms of some early-onset psychopathologies observed in adolescents. “
“This Corrigendum indicates the complete acknowledgements in the published paper of Goutagny et al. (2013) as follows: We wish to acknowledge the valuable discussions and advice from Dr J. A. McLaurin (Toronto University, Toronto, ON, Canada) and technical collaboration from Mary Brown (Toronto University) in realization of ELISA. This work was supported by grants MOP102573 and MOP81111 from the Canadian Institute of Neratinib ic50 Health Research (CIHR) and a Alzheimer Society of Canada Research Program Regular Research Grant. R.G. is supported by grants from the Fondation Fyssen, the European Research Executive Agency and the NARSAD. “
“In the Syrian hamster dorsal and median raphé nuclei, the tryptophan hydroxylase 2 gene (tph2), which codes the rate-limiting enzyme

of serotonin synthesis, displays daily variations in its expression in animals entrained to a long but not to a short photoperiod. The present study aimed to assess the role of glucocorticoids in the nycthemeral and photoperiodic regulation of daily tph2 expression. In hamsters held in long photoperiod from birth, after adrenalectomy and glucocorticoid implants the suppression of glucocorticoid rhythms induced an abolition of the daily variations in tph2-mRNA PAK6 concentrations, a decrease in the amplitude of body temperature rhythms and an increase in testosterone levels. All these effects were reversed after experimental restoration of a clear daily rhythm in the plasma glucocorticoid concentrations. We conclude that the photoperiod-dependent rhythm of glucocorticoids is the main regulator of tph2 daily expression.

“
“Animal models of tinnitus allow us to study the relationship between changes in neural activity and the tinnitus percept. Here, guinea pigs were subjected to unilateral noise trauma and tested behaviourally for tinnitus 8 weeks later. By comparing animals with tinnitus with those without, all of which were noise-exposed, we were able to identify changes unique to the tinnitus group. Three physiological markers known to change following noise exposure were examined: spontaneous firing rates (SFRs) and burst firing in the inferior colliculus (IC), evoked auditory brainstem responses (ABRs), and the number of neurons in the cochlear nucleus containing nitric oxide synthase (NOS). We obtained behavioural evidence of tinnitus in 12 of 16 (75%) animals. Both SFRs and incidences of burst firing were elevated in the IC of all noise-exposed animals, but there were no differences between tinnitus and no-tinnitus animals.

, 2008), indicating the advantage of MLSA as a good substitute for DNA–DNA hybridization in describing new Vibrio species. The determination of the G+C content of strain MSSRF38T yielded 45.4 mol%, which was in good agreement with the values for the genus Vibrio (Baumann et al., 1984). The strain MSSRF38T had the main phenotypic features of the genus Vibrio; the cells were straight to slightly curved rods, motile,

facultatively anaerobic, Gram-negative, catalase-positive and no growth occurred in the absence of NaCl. These features indicate that the Venetoclax price strain is probably a species of the genus Vibrio (Baumann et al., 1984). The strain MSSRF38T produced nondiffusible, cellular red pigments, regardless of the presence of light. Acetone/methanol extracts of the red pigments showed maximal absorption at about 535 nm, which is identical to the

absorption spectrum of prodigiosin (Allen, 1967). The phenotypic characteristics of strain MSSRF38T are given in the species description below. Strain MSSRF38T is phenotypically very similar to V. rhizosphaerae DSM 18581T and V. ruber DSM 16370T. It was found earlier that several vibrios have very similar phenotypic features (Gomez et al., 2004; Thompson et al., 2004), and the techniques that are essential for reliable species identification in the genus Vibrio are based on genomic data (Thompson et al., 2004). Table 2 presents the characteristics that differentiate MSSRF38T from its phylogenetically most closely related neighbours. Furthermore, the new species could be differentiated from any other Vibrio species by the following combination of properties: Ku-0059436 solubility dmso positive for red pigment, gas production from glucose, utilization of d-arabinose, lactose and xylose, no growth in TCBS, negative for oxidase, arginine dihydrolase and ornithine

decarboxylase, and resistant to O/129. The FAME analyses showed that strain MSSRF38T had the main chemotaxonomic features of the genus Vibrio (Lambert et al., 1983; Bertone et al., 1996). The most abundant fatty acids are summed feature 3 (26.2%; comprising C16:1ω7c and/or C15:0 iso 2-OH), C16:0 (20.9%), C18:1ω7c (18.0%), C14:0 (8.4%), C12:0 (6.8%), summed feature 2 (6.5%; comprising an unidentified fatty acid with an equivalent chain length of 10.928 and/or C12:0 ALDE, C16:1 iso I and/or C14:0 3-OH), C12:0 3-OH (6.7%). The following fatty acids Etofibrate were detected in small amounts: C10:0 (0.2%), C10:0 3-OH (0.4%), C14:0 iso (0.2%), C14:0 iso 3-OH (0.2%), C16:0 iso (0.4%), C12:0 2-OH (0.2%), C12:1 3-OH (2.0%), C16:1ω5c (0.1%), C17:0 (0.4%), C18:0 (0.5%), summed feature 1 (0.3%; comprising C13:0 3-OH and/or C15:1 iso I/H), unidentified fatty acid with an equivalent chain length of 12.484 (0.9%), unidentified fatty acid with an equivalent chain length of 11.799 (0.9%). In conclusion, the results of the present study indicate that isolate MSSRF38T should be classified in a novel species of the genus Vibrio, for which the name Vibrio mangrovi sp. nov. is proposed. Vibrio mangrovi (man.

Although an increase in the selleck inhibitor proportion of visits requiring emergent/urgent care or requiring to be seen by an attending physician was observed for both HRIPD and non-HRIPD visits

over the three periods of observation, the increase was greater for HRIPD visits (data not shown for non-HRIPD visits seen by attending physicians because the increase was <4%). However, an increase in the need for diagnostic tests and medications was not observed for non-HRIPD visits. As Hellinger reported in a cross-sectional multi-site study, HIV-infected in-patients are getting older and sicker, and receiving a higher number of diagnoses, which could partly explain the higher increase in ED utilization (emergent/urgent care and attending physician care) in HRIPD visits [14]. Furthermore, they found a dramatic reduction in the utilization of hospital services by,

and the cost of the provision of these services to, HIV-infected persons from 2000 to 2004, compared with our trend of increased utilization of the ED. However, the different study populations used may partly explain the different findings of these studies (i.e. in-patients vs. ED patients; multi-sites vs. national survey). Our study has several GPCR Compound Library nmr limitations. First, although data regarding presumptive ED diagnoses reflect current national emergency medicine practice [10], the NHAMCS data set provides limited clinical detail. Up to three ED diagnoses and RFVs are recorded per visit. In the NHAMCS, diagnoses are collected as verbatim texts abstracted from medical records, which are then coded by a contractor. Misclassification could therefore occur during processing. Further, except for the primary diagnosis, ED diagnoses in the NHAMCS are not necessarily recorded in order of clinical importance by the provider. Therefore, the possibility exists that some HRIPD visits were missed. For example, if OI was the primary diagnosis, and HIV/AIDS was not among the top three diagnoses recorded by the NHAMCS, this

would lead to 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase an underestimation of the number of HRIPD visits. Further, HRIPD was operationally defined here using ICD-9-CM codes only, rather than additional clinical, laboratory or physiological parameters. Nevertheless, the fact that we included any codes related to HIV/AIDS illness among the first three diagnoses in each visit should offset this limitation. We also chose to define ‘pneumonia’ operationally as an OI in HRIPD visits, as we assume that many of these diagnoses were for PCP or recurrent bacterial pneumonia. Some cases of pneumonia, however, may have represented novel episodes in those with HIV infection, which would have led us to overestimate the prevalence of HRIPD visits and ED utilization.

In addition, recent

studies showed that pathogenic HIV infection of chimpanzees is characterized by elevated levels of IP-10 and MCP-1 [47], and pulmonary infection in SIV-infected macaques is associated with strong IP-10 and MIG levels in the lung. In this study, we report that enfuvirtide-based therapy induces a rapid decrease in circulating IP-10 levels (concomitant with a decrease in MIG and MCP-1), which is positively correlated with the suppression of the VL and CD4 T-cell restoration. Thus, enfuvirtide-based salvage therapy reduces the release of inflammatory chemokines associated with disease progression. In summary, we report herein the restoration of a number of immune GDC-0068 clinical trial parameters that suggest an immunological benefit of enfuvirtide-based salvage therapy in patients with low CD4 cell counts experiencing failures of prior therapies. Most, if SCH727965 manufacturer not all, of the immunological benefits found were correlated with a significant reduction of immune activation in the patients and a reduction in proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines, which was associated with a decreased VL. Financial support of this work by Roche is gratefully acknowledged. “
“A Swiss

nonoccupational post-exposure prophylaxis (NPEP) source-tracing study successfully reduced unnecessary NPEP prescriptions by recruiting and testing source partners of unknown HIV serostatus. The Victorian NPEP Service in Australia attempted to replicate this study with the addition of HIV rapid testing and a mobile service. Patients presenting to two busy NPEP sites who reported a source partner of unknown HIV status were routinely asked if their source could be traced. If the exposed person indicated that their source partner was traceable they were asked to contact them and discuss the possibility of having an HIV test. No sources were enrolled and the study was terminated. We hypothesize that there are a number of differences

between Australia and Switzerland that make source tracing unfeasible in Australia. The Victorian Non-Occupational Post Exposure Prophylaxis Service (VNPEPS) co-ordinates state-wide access check to nonoccupational post-exposure prophylaxis (NPEP) for those exposed to HIV in the community. The central administration of the service is located at The Alfred Hospital in Melbourne, Australia and there are 18 sites throughout Victoria where NPEP can be accessed. Since the service began in August 2005 to 31 December 2010, most individuals (2053 of 3076; 67%) reported an exposure to a source partner whose HIV antibody (Ab) status was unknown. Based on an estimated HIV seroprevalence of 9.6% in men who have sex with men (MSM) in Melbourne, the majority of unknown source partners will be HIV negative and the exposed person will not require NPEP [1].

, 2007a, b) and Natrialba magadii (Ruiz & De Castro, 2007).

Also, Fukushima et al. (2005) and Shafiei et al. (2011) reported organic-solvent-tolerant halophilic α-amylase from Haloarcula sp. strain S-1 and Nesterenkonia sp. strain F. However, to the best of our knowledge, there are no reports on organic-solvent-tolerant β-amylases from halophiles. The halophile Salimicrobium sp. has been studied with regard to its ecology, physiology, biochemistry, and more recently, its genetics (Yoon et al., 2007, 2009). However, the microorganism’s biotechnological DNA Synthesis inhibitor possibilities have not been extensively exploited, and no reports about the enzyme production from Salimicrobium sp have been published. In this study, we report the purification and characterization of β-amylase and protease from a newly halophilic strain LY20, including organic solvent tolerance of the enzymes. The strain LY20 was isolated from the saline soil of Yuncheng, China, and cultivated aerobically at 37 °C in the complex medium (CM) with the following composition (g L−1): casein peptone 7.5; High Content Screening yeast extract 10.0; soluble starch 10.0; sodium citrate 3.0; MgSO4·7H2O 20.0; KCl 2.0; FeSO4·7H2O 0.01; NaCl 120.0 and pH 7.5. The strain was identified based on typical cultural, morphological, and biochemical characteristics and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The organism was deposited at China Center of Industrial Culture Collection

with the accession number CICC 10482. The 16S rRNA gene sequence was submitted to GenBank with the accession number HQ683738. The kinetics of bacterial growth and extracellular enzymes production were determined at different time intervals. Bacterial growth, along with enzyme activity, was measured by spectrophotometric method (Shimadzu model UV-160A). After cultivation of the strain LY20 in CM broth for 60 h, cell-free supernatant was harvested by centrifugation at 12 000 g for 15 min at 4 °C and used for enzyme purification. Ammonium sulfate was added to the supernatant

up to 75% concentration with continuous overnight stirring. The precipitate collected by centrifugation (12 000 g for 25 min) was dissolved in a minimum volume of buffer A (20 mM Tris–HCl containing 10% NaCl, pH 10.0) and CHIR-99021 purchase dialyzed against the same buffer overnight. The concentrated sample was loaded on a Q-Sepharose HP column (1.6 × 14 cm) pre-equilibrated with buffer A. Bound proteins were eluted by applying a linear gradient of 0.1–0.8 M NaCl. Fractions containing amylase and protease activity were pooled and concentrated by freeze-drying, respectively. Each resulting concentrate was dissolved in a minimal volume of buffer B (50 mM glycine–NaOH containing 10% NaCl, pH 10.0) and then loaded on a Sephacryl S-200 column (1.6 × 60 cm). The samples were eluted with buffer B at a flow rate of 0.5 mL min−1 (2 mL per fraction). Active fractions containing the extracellular amylase and protease were pooled and used for further analysis.

, 2004; Hofemeister et al., 2004; López et al., 2009). ComX is a quorum-sensing peptide pheromone that triggers the production of surfactin. The lipopeptide is then involved in a paracrine signaling pathway that triggers a subpopulation of

cells to produce an extracellular matrix. Interestingly, the surfactin-producing cells do not produce a matrix themselves, but upstream activation of comX is needed for biofilm production (Magnuson et al., 1994; López et al., 2009). It is still unclear how ComX-producing cells activate surfactin synthesis and how surfactin can then trigger matrix production. In B. subtilis check details 168 strains, single-base duplications in sfp genes cause impairment in surfactin production (Zeigler et al., 2008). This mutation also Nivolumab mouse produces losses of swarming and affects the speed of colonization (Julkowska et al., 2005). sfp encodes a phosphopantetheinyl transferase that activates the peptidyl carrier protein domain of the first three subunits (SrfABC) of surfactin synthetase (Quadri et al., 1998). Microorganisms, which require the activation of carrier

proteins involved in secondary metabolic pathways, such as nonribosomal peptide synthetase or polyketide synthase pathways, require the activity of these Sfp-like proteins (Copp et al., 2007). Consequently, in the absence of the Sfp enzyme, B. subtilis cannot synthesize compounds such as surfactin, http://www.selleck.co.jp/products/cobimetinib-gdc-0973-rg7420.html which are dependent on nonribosomal peptide synthetase or polyketide synthase-type mechanisms. Bacillus subtilis strain 3610 that carries the intact sfp gene swarms rapidly in symmetrical concentric waves, forming branched dendritic

patterns. This observation was confirmed by Debois et al. (2008), who reported that surfactin molecules with a specific chain length play an important role in the swarming of communities on the agar surface. Although the specific mechanisms of surfactant secretion are unknown, lipopeptide secretion provides a powerful competitive advantage for any species during surface colonization and during competition for resources (Ron & Rosenberg, 2001). For example, surfactin produced by B. subtilis inhibits Streptomyces coelicolor aerial development and causes altered expression of developmental genes (Straight et al., 2006). It has also been established that surfactin is required for the formation of aerial structures on B. subtilis biofilm (Branda et al., 2001). The ecological role of the aerial structures is to increase the spore dispersal capacity. The second and third groups of surfactants produced by B. subtilis are peptides belonging to the iturin and plipastatin–fengycin groups, respectively (Fig. 1). Using HPLC, Ahimou et al. (2000) reported considerable variations in the lipopeptide content of seven B. subtilis strains. Among the three types of lipopeptides, only iturin A was produced by all seven B. subtilis strains.